Introduction Angina pectoris, often referred to simply as angina, is chest pain or discomfort that arises when the myocardial oxygen supply is insufficient to meet the heartโs metabolic demands. As a cardinal manifestation of coronary artery disease (CAD), angina affects millions of people worldwide, posing a significant burden on healthcare systems and patient quality of … Read more
Introduction Cholinomimetic drugs (also referred to as parasympathomimetics) are agents that mimic or enhance the actions of acetylcholine (ACh), the primary neurotransmitter found at parasympathetic postganglionic nerve endings, neuromuscular junctions, and certain synapses within the central nervous system (CNS). By activating or augmenting cholinergic signaling, cholinomimetic drugs can profoundly influence a wide range of physiological functions, including smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretion, heart rate, pupil size, and more (Goodman & … Read more
Introduction Cholinergic antagonists, also known as parasympatholytics or antimuscarinic agents, are a class of drugs that block the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system. These medications have a wide range of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of overactive bladder, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), irritable bowel syndrome, and … Read more
Introduction Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation in the human body and plays a critical role in numerous physiological processes. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is an inorganic salt that has been used medicinally for over a century to treat a variety of conditions. This chapter will provide an overview of the pharmacology of magnesium sulfate, … Read more
Antimicrobial stewardship is the coordinated set of actions that ensures the optimal selection, dosing, route, and duration of antimicrobial therapy to improve clinical outcomes while minimizing toxicity, resistance, and costs. It is operationalized globally through frameworks such as the CDC Core Elements, IDSA/SHEA implementation guidelines, WHO AWaRe resources, and national guidance like NICE, which together … Read more
Scope and Definition Anxiolytics are a class of pharmacological agents administered to treat pathological anxietyโa set of disorders characterized by excessive and unmanageable worry or fear. Anxiety may be generalized (GAD), situational (phobias), episodic (panic disorder), obsessive-compulsive (OCD), or post-traumatic (PTSD). Clinical management is driven by agent efficacy, risk profile, presence of comorbidities, and short- versus … Read more
Introduction Regulatory Pharmacology is the interdisciplinary field responsible for ensuring the safety, efficacy, and quality of medicines throughout their entire lifecycle. It stands at the critical intersection of pharmacology, toxicology, and regulatory law, providing the scientific foundation upon which government agencies approve new drugs and monitor their performance in the market. The purpose of this … Read more
Oral contraceptives (OCs) are hormone-containing medications taken to prevent pregnancy and for management of various gynecologic conditions. They are among the most widely used medicines globally, and have undergone major changes in formulation, pharmacokinetics, and safety since their introduction. Types of Oral Contraceptives Type Active Ingredients Examples Clinical Features Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) Estrogen (usually … Read more
Introduction Overview of Estrogens: Definition and Biological Significance Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones crucial for the development and functioning of both female and male reproductive systems, although they are primarily considered female hormones. They play a significant role in sexual and reproductive development, particularly in women. Beyond their reproductive functions, estrogens are also … Read more
Introduction Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has become a global health challenge, characterized by insulin resistance and a relative deficiency of insulin secretion, resulting in persistent hyperglycemia. Over time, poorly controlled T2DM can lead to complications affecting the cardiovascular system, kidneys, eyes, and nervous system. Effective pharmacotherapy for T2DM aims to enhance glycemic control, prevent disease progression, reduce … Read more