Immunomodulators and a focus on immunosuppressants

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immunomodulators

Immunomodulators are drugs that can either suppress or enhance the activity of the immune system. These are two types: Introduction Immunosuppressants comprise a diverse group of drugs that inhibit or modulate immune system activity. They serve crucial roles in solid-organ transplantation (preventing graft rejection), autoimmune diseases (hindering pathological immune attacks), and certain inflammatory conditions. By downregulating … Read more

Tuberculosis and Its Treatment

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Tuberculosis

Introduction Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health threat, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), a slow-growing, aerobic, acid-fast bacillus with a unique, lipid-rich cell wall conferring virulence and intrinsic drug resistance. Diagnosis relies on acid-fast stains, culture, PCR, and clinical criteria. TB is primarily pulmonary but can affect any organ. Increased risk is seen in immunosuppressed individuals, … Read more

Bronchial Asthma and its Treatment

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Bronchial asthma

Asthma Bronchial asthma is a condition characterized by bronchial hyperreactivity and inflammation. The activation of IgE bound to mast cells by the antigen leads to the degranulation of mast cells, resulting in the release of various mediators, such as leukotrienes, prostaglandins, platelet-activating factor, histamine, and protease enzymes. These mediators can cause bronchoconstriction and inflammation, leading … Read more

Alzheimer’s Disease and treatment

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alzheimers disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder marked by amyloid and tau protein pathology that leads to gradual decline in memory, function, and behavior; management combines accurate staging, symptomatic cognitive therapies, comprehensive non‑pharmacologic care, and, in eligible early cases, disease‑modifying anti‑amyloid monoclonal antibodies with structured MRI safety monitoring. Evidence‑based symptomatic options include acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Cough

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cough

Introduction Cough—an involuntary, forceful expulsion of air from the lungs—is one of the most frequent symptoms leading to medical consultation. As a physiologic reflex, cough serves as the body’s first line of defense against respiratory tract infection, foreign bodies, mucus, and irritants. Despite its protective role, chronic or severe cough substantially impairs quality of life, … Read more

Anti-manic drugs: Lithium and others

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Anti-manic drugs

Introduction Mania is a hallmark feature of bipolar disorder and is characterized by heightened mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, grandiosity, and, often, impulsive or reckless behaviors. During manic episodes, individuals experience profound alterations in mood and neurophysiological processes, sometimes leading to severe psychosocial impairments. Treating mania demands a nuanced blend of pharmacologic intervention, psychotherapeutic … Read more

Antidepressant Drugs: A brief note

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Antidepressant Drugs or antidepressants

Brief Summary Drugs can increase monoaminergic transmission by inhibiting the metabolism or reuptake of neurotransmitters such as serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA). MAO Inhibitors Reuptake Inhibitors I. Tricyclic antidepressants Tricyclic Antidepressants and Serotonin-Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCA) inhibit serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake, leading to increased transmitter concentration in the synaptic cleft. Bupropion also inhibits … Read more

Pharmacology of Antianxiety Drugs

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antianxiety drugs

Introduction Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent mental health conditions globally, encompassing generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, social anxiety, phobias, and more. Characterized by excessive worry, fear, and sympathetic hyperarousal, these conditions can significantly impair quality of life and daily functioning. Antianxiety drugs, also known as anxiolytics, form an essential component of treatment, often … Read more

Pharmacology of Antipsychotic Drugs

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antipsychotic drugs

Introduction The field of antipsychotic pharmacology continues to evolve as our understanding of the central nervous system advances. Antipsychotic drugs, also known as neuroleptics, are primarily used to manage psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, severe depression with psychotic features, and acute psychosis resulting from various underlying etiologies. Their effectiveness in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia—such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized … Read more

Routes of Drug Administration: A detailed overview

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Routes of drug administration

Routes of drug administration are critical in determining a medication’s therapeutic effectiveness, safety profile, and patient adherence. Different routes allow clinicians to optimize how quickly and extensively an active compound reaches its intended site of action, while also accommodating specific disease conditions and patient factors. While numerous administration routes exist—ranging from oral ingestion to specialized … Read more