Pharmacology

Pharmacology of Anticholinergics: Atropine

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Atropine

Introduction Atropineโ€”the prototypicalย naturally occurring belladonna alkaloidโ€”has been used in medicine for well over a century. Extracted chiefly from Atropa belladonna (deadly night-shade), it remains indispensable in anesthesia, cardiology, ophthalmology, toxicology, and emergency medicine. Because it blocks muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, atropine exemplifies the class ofย competitive antimuscarinic (parasympatholytic) agents. 1. Historical and Chemical Background 1.1 Botanical … Read more

Pharmacology of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists

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GnRH Antagonists

Introduction Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonistsย have redefined several aspects of endocrine and reproductive medicine by offering a more direct and immediate means of suppressing the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis than earlier therapies. Whileย GnRH agonistsย (e.g., leuprolide, goserelin) initially occupy receptor sites and trigger a transient surge of gonadotropins before downregulating them,ย GnRH antagonistsย bind competitively to pituitary GnRH receptors and … Read more

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists

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GnRH Agonists

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists are synthetic peptide analogues of native GnRH engineered to resist enzymatic degradation and to produce sustained receptor activation that ultimately suppresses pituitary LH/FSH and downstream sex steroid synthesis after an initial flare; they are foundational in endocrine therapeutics for prostate cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, central precocious puberty, ART protocols, and selected … Read more

Pharmacology of Danazol: a synthetic steroid

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Danazol

Introduction and Chemical Nature Danazol is a synthetic isoxazole derivative of 17ฮฑ-ethinyl testosterone. It was developed for its unique endocrine properties and mild androgenic activity, making it useful in various gynecological and hematological conditions. Structurally, its modifications confer the ability to suppress gonadotropin secretion and interact with multiple steroid receptors. Mechanism of Action Danazol exerts a … Read more

Pharmacology of Testosterone

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Testosterone

Introduction Testosterone is a key steroid hormone primarily secreted by the testes in males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries in females and the adrenal glands in both sexes. It is the most important androgen, critically influencing the development and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics, muscle mass, bone density, and overall metabolic health. … Read more

Pharmacology of Quinupristin-dalfopristin

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Quinupristin-dalfopristin

Introduction Quinupristin-dalfopristinย is a parenteral antibiotic combination belonging to the streptogramin class. It arose as a potent therapeutic alternative for managing resistant Gram-positive bacterial infections, particularly those involving methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE). This drug combination, composed of two distinct streptogramin derivativesโ€”quinupristinย andย dalfopristinโ€”exerts synergistic bactericidal activity by targeting the bacterial 50S ribosomal subunit, … Read more

Metronidazole: an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication

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Metronidazole

Introduction Metronidazole is a widely used antimicrobial agent recognized for its efficacy against anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. Derived from nitroimidazole, metronidazole disrupts the DNA of target microorganisms, halting their replication. It was first introduced in the late 1950s as an antiprotozoal, but manufacturers soon discovered potent antibacterial activity as well. Today, metronidazole remains a mainstay treatment for infections caused by … Read more

Clindamycin: a lincosamide antibiotic

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Clindamycin

Clindamycin is a lincosamide antibiotic widely used for its excellent activity against many Gram-positive cocci and anaerobes. It is valued for oral and parenteral versatility, tissue penetration (including bone), and its toxin-suppressing action in severe streptococcal and staphylococcal infections. Chemistry & Mechanism Clindamycin is a semi-synthetic chlorinated derivative of lincomycin. It binds to the 23S ribosomal … Read more

Pharmacology of Linezolid

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Linezolid

Introduction Among the modern arsenal of antibiotics, linezolid occupies a key position in the management of drug-resistant Gram-positive infections. Approved by the U.S. FDA in 2000, linezolid heralded the first-in-class oxazolidinone family of antibacterials, providing clinicians with a vital alternative to treat resistant pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and certain resistant strains of Streptococcus. Over the past … Read more

Pharmacology of Vancomycin

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Vancomycin

Vancomycin is a glycopeptide antibiotic principally used in the treatment of severe infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, particularly those resistant to beta-lactams such as MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), penicillin-resistant streptococci, and certain enterococci. Its unique action on bacterial cell wall synthesis makes it invaluable for life-threatening infections where other options are ineffective or inappropriate. #Vancomycin … Read more