Scope: Pathophysiology, Drug Classifications, Mechanisms of Action, Clinical Pharmacology, and Therapeutic Guidelines. I. Introduction and Pathophysiology Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory disorder characterized by a breach in the mucosa of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the proximal duodenum (duodenal ulcer) extending through the muscularis mucosae. The pathophysiology of PUD is best … Read more
Introduction Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) encompasses the formation of ulcers in the stomach (gastric ulcer) or duodenum (duodenal ulcer), primarily caused by gastric acid hypersecretion and/or compromised defense of the gastric and duodenal mucosa. While Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection remains a principal etiology for many cases, other contributing factors include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), stress-related mucosal injury, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (gastrinoma). Clinically, patients may present … Read more
Introduction Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a chronic, relapsing-remitting inflammatory disorder of the gastrointestinal tract that primarily includes Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Both conditions can produce significant morbidity, including abdominal pain, diarrhea (often with blood), weight loss, and systemic manifestations such as anemia. Thought to arise via an intricate interplay of genetic … Read more
Introduction Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a chronic functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain and altered bowel habits in the absence of any identifiable structural or biochemical abnormalities. IBS affects an estimated 5-15% of the global population, placing a considerable burden on healthcare systems and patients’ quality of life. Despite ongoing research, IBS remains … Read more
I. Introduction Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic disorder characterized by the reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus, which leads to troublesome symptoms, mucosal injury, and, in some cases, serious complications such as strictures or Barrett’s esophagus. GERD is one of the most prevalent GI disorders globally, affecting up to 20% of adults in … Read more
Introduction Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) is a gastrointestinal disorder characterized by sores or lesions in the lining of the stomach or duodenum. It is a significant health concern worldwide, affecting a broad demographic. Pathophysiology Peptic ulcers result from an imbalance between mucosal defensive factors (like mucus and bicarbonate secretion) and aggressive factors (such as gastric … Read more
Introduction Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a spiral-shaped, gram-negative bacterium that colonizes the human stomach and duodenum. First identified in the early 1980s, this organism quickly garnered attention due to its critical role in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease, chronic gastritis, and certain types of gastric malignancies, notably gastric adenocarcinoma and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) … Read more
I. Definition, Historical Perspective & Epidemiology Zollinger–Ellison Syndrome (ZES) is a rare disorder characterized by gastrin-secreting tumors (“gastrinomas”) of the pancreas or duodenum. These tumors lead to excessive gastric acid secretion, resulting in recurrent, treatment-resistant peptic ulcers, severe gastroesophageal reflux, and diarrhea. II. Pathophysiology 1. Gastrinoma Biology 2. Mechanism—Gastrin Overproduction 3. Resultant Clinical Effects III. Clinical … Read more
1 · Introduction Vomiting (emesis) is an evolutionarily conserved defence reflex that forcefully expels gastric—and at times intestinal—contents through the mouth. Although the motor act seems singular, it is orchestrated by a distributed brain-stem network that integrates sensory danger signals from the gut, the bloodstream, the vestibular system and higher cortical areas. Two functional loci dominate … Read more
Introduction Nausea and vomiting are defensive reflexes that protect the body from ingested toxins and noxious substances, but they can also emerge from various benign or pathological stimuli. From motion sickness and morning sickness to chemotherapy-induced and postoperative nausea and vomiting, these symptoms can significantly impact quality of life. Consequently, the search for effective antiemetic drugs has long been a priority in pharmacology and clinical … Read more