Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their interactions with living organisms. It encompasses various terms and concepts related to drug action, classification, and administration. Here are some common definitions and terms used in pharmacology: Drug: A chemical substance that interacts with the body to produce a physiological effect, either for therapeutic purposes, diagnostic purposes, … Read more
Antiarrhythmic drugs are used to treat various types of abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). They are classified into four main classes (Class 1, 2, 3, and 4) according to the Vaughan-Williams classification system. This system is based on its primary mechanism of action and electrophysiological effects on the heart. Class 1: Sodium channel blockers Sodium Channel … Read more
Cephalosporin antibiotics are beta-lactam antibiotics derived from Cephalosporium acremonium, classified by generations based on their antimicrobial spectra and pharmacokinetic properties. They are among the most utilized antibiotics globally, due to broad efficacy and good safety profile. I. Mechanism of Action Cephalosporins bind to bacterial penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and inhibit the final transpeptidation step of peptidoglycan synthesis in … Read more
Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a condition in which the heart is unable to pump blood effectively, leading to fluid accumulation in the lungs and other body tissues.
Introduction Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) are an important aspect of chemistry that has been applied in many fields, particularly in drug design. It is a scientific method used to understand the relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological activity. SAR provides a comprehensive understanding of how the structure of a molecule affects … Read more
Antimicrobial agents can be broadly classified into six main categories: antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, antiprotozoals, anthelmintics, and antiseptics. Antibiotics can be classified into several classes based on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, and spectrum of activity. Some of the major classes include: a. Beta-lactams: Examples: Penicillins (e.g., amoxicillin, penicillin G), cephalosporins (e.g., cephalexin, ceftriaxone), and … Read more
Introduction Among the most historically significant and widely used classes of antibiotics, penicillins have revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections. Their discovery by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928 laid the foundation for a new era in antimicrobial therapy. Since then, extensive research has led to the development of numerous penicillin derivatives, each tailored to broaden the spectrum … Read more
Central nervous system (CNS) infections include a spectrum of diseases such as meningitis, encephalitis, brain abscess, and healthcare-associated ventriculitis/meningitis. These conditions are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, requiring rapid diagnosis and prompt, targeted intervention. I. Types of CNS Infections Infection Type Most Common Causes Key Features/Notes Meningitis Bacterial: S. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis, H. influenzae, L. monocytogenes. Viral: enteroviruses, HSV, … Read more
Sedative-hypnotics are a class of drugs that work on the central nervous system (CNS) to produce a calming or drowsy effect and are often prescribed for insomnia, anxiety, and seizure disorders. They can be classified into three main categories: benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and Z-drugs (non-benzodiazepine hypnotics). Here’s a brief overview of these classes, along with some … Read more
Overview Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor features (bradykinesia, rigidity, rest tremor, postural instability) and a wide array of nonmotor symptoms (autonomic dysfunction, sleep disorders, mood and cognitive changes, pain). The cardinal pathology is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta with consequent striatal dopamine depletion. Pharmacotherapy … Read more