I. Introduction and Class Overview Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs) are a class of drugs that reversibly inhibit the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, thereby interfering with HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate) reabsorption and decreasing hydrogen ion secretion in several tissues. Their major clinical uses are as diuretics, in the management of glaucoma, acute mountain sickness, certain epilepsies, and as adjuncts … Read more
Mechanism of Action: Osmotic diuretics work by increasing the osmolarity of the filtrate in the renal tubules. The glomerulus filters them but does not reabsorb them, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water into the nephron. This results in increased urine output and decreased intracranial and intraocular pressure. Pharmacokinetics: Drug Examples: Clinical Use: Side Effects: … Read more
Potassium-sparing diuretics are a class of diuretic medications that increase diuresis (urine production) while conserving potassium, contrasting with thiazide and loop diuretics that promote potassium loss. They are used primarily to counteract hypokalemia and as adjuncts in conditions involving excessive fluid retention or aldosterone excess. Classification and Key Agents Class Main Drugs Site of Action … Read more
Introduction Loop diuretics are a cornerstone of therapy in conditions where rapid and potent diuresis (urine output) is required. By inhibiting sodium and chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending limb (TAL) of the loop of Henle, loop diuretics evoke profound excretion of sodium, chloride, and water—often making them the most efficacious diuretic class available. Clinicians rely heavily … Read more
Understanding the kinetics of how a drug is removed from the body is foundational for creating and adjusting rational dosage plans tailored to individual patient needs. Three key pharmacokinetic parameters must be comprehended: bioavailability (F), volume of distribution (Vd), and clearance (CL). The first two have been previously discussed. Drug Elimination Drug elimination comprises both … Read more
Introduction Discovered almost a century ago, insulin remains a cornerstone of therapy for diabetes mellitus—a global health challenge characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and/or insufficient insulin secretion. Beyond diabetes, insulin also plays pivotal roles in metabolic research and critical care (e.g., hyperkalemia management). Fundamentally, insulin drives glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue, regulates hepatic glucose output, … Read more
Introduction Alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonists, commonly referred to as alpha-blockers, form a crucial element in the pharmacologic management of several cardiovascular and genitourinary conditions. By blocking alpha-1 and/or alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, these agents cause a diverse array of effects, from vasodilation in peripheral blood vessels to smooth muscle relaxation in the bladder neck and prostate. Clinicians frequently use alpha-blockers to treat hypertension, benign prostatic … Read more
Introduction Alteplase (also referred to as recombinant tissue plasminogen activator or rt-PA) is a cornerstone of thrombolytic therapy, widely used to treat acute ischemic stroke, acute myocardial infarction, and other thromboembolic conditions. As a bioengineered form of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), alteplase exerts its therapeutic effect by converting plasminogen to plasmin, thereby dissolving clots that obstruct blood flow … Read more
1. Definition & Epidemiology Ischemic heart disease (IHD)—also called coronary artery disease (CAD)—is defined by impaired blood supply (ischemia) to the myocardium, usually due to narrowing or obstruction of the coronary arteries by atherosclerotic plaque. IHD is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly affecting adults over age 40 and those with major cardiovascular … Read more
The treatment of ischemic heart disease aims to improve blood flow to the heart muscle. This can be achieved through a combination of lifestyle changes, medications, and in some cases, surgical procedures. Drug Class Examples Pharmacokinetics Mechanism of Action/Pharmacological Actions Therapeutic Uses Adverse Effects Contraindications Drug Interactions Antiplatelet Drugs Aspirin, Clopidogrel Rapidly absorbed in the stomach … Read more