Pharmacology

Pharmacology of Androgens: A Comprehensive Guide

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androgens

Introduction Androgensโ€”the primary being testosterone and its potent intracellular metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT)โ€”drive the development and maintenance of male phenotype, regulate protein anabolism, affect behavior, and exert complex feed-back control over the hypothalamicโ€“pituitaryโ€“gonadal (HPG) axis. Therapeutically, natural and synthetic androgens (collectively โ€œanabolic-androgenic steroids,โ€ AAS) are indispensable in endocrinology, hematology, geriatrics, gynecology, and even palliative care. 1. Chemical Classification Group … Read more

Pharmacology of Anti-Androgens

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antiandrogens

I. Introduction and Historical Context Anti-androgens are a pharmacologically diverse class of agents designed to diminish or block the effects of endogenous androgensโ€”principally testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)โ€”on target tissues. Since the recognition of androgen dependence in prostate cancer in the 1940s, the development of anti-androgen therapies has revolutionized management of hormone-dependent cancers, benign prostate disease, androgen … Read more

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Receptors: A Comprehensive Overview

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Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Receptors

Introduction The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions in the human body. It consists of two main divisions: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). These systems work in opposition to each other to maintain homeostasis. The effects of the ANS are mediated through … Read more

Pharmacology of Skeletal Muscle Relaxants

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Pharmacology of Skeletal Muscle Relaxants

Introduction Skeletal muscle relaxants are a diverse group of medications that act on the central nervous system (CNS) or directly on skeletal muscles to reduce muscle tone and alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia (Katzung & Trevor, 2021). These drugs are commonly used in various clinical settings, including anaesthesia, neurology, and pain … Read more

Pharmacology of Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) Blockers

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Pharmacology of Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) Blockers

Introduction Theย neuromuscular junction (NMJ)ย is a specialized synapse where aย motor neuronย communicates with aย skeletal muscle fiberย to initiate muscle contraction. This communication relies on the release ofย acetylcholine (ACh)ย from the presynaptic terminal of the motor neuron, the subsequent binding of ACh toย nicotinic receptorsย on the postsynaptic muscle membrane, and the resultantย end-plate potentialย that triggers muscle contraction.ย Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) blockersโ€”also referred to … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Angina Pectoris

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angina pectoris

Introduction Angina pectoris, often referred to simply as angina, is chest pain or discomfort that arises when the myocardial oxygen supply is insufficient to meet the heartโ€™s metabolic demands. As a cardinal manifestation of coronary artery disease (CAD), angina affects millions of people worldwide, posing a significant burden on healthcare systems and patient quality of … Read more

Cholinomimetic Drugs (Cholinergic Agonists / Parasympathomimetics)

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parasympathomimetics

Introduction Cholinomimetic drugs (also referred to as parasympathomimetics) are agents that mimic or enhance the actions of acetylcholine (ACh), the primary neurotransmitter found at parasympathetic postganglionic nerve endings, neuromuscular junctions, and certain synapses within the central nervous system (CNS). By activating or augmenting cholinergic signaling, cholinomimetic drugs can profoundly influence a wide range of physiological functions, including smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretion, heart rate, pupil size, and more (Goodman & … Read more

Cholinergic Antagonists: A Comprehensive Guide to Parasympatholytics and Antimuscarinic Agents

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Cholinergic antagonists - Parasympatholytics

Introduction Cholinergic antagonists, also known as parasympatholytics or antimuscarinic agents, are a class of drugs that block the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system. These medications have a wide range of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of overactive bladder, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), irritable bowel syndrome, and … Read more

Pharmacology of Magnesium Sulfate

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magnesium sulfate

Introduction Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation in the human body and plays a critical role in numerous physiological processes. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is an inorganic salt that has been used medicinally for over a century to treat a variety of conditions. This chapter will provide an overview of the pharmacology of magnesium sulfate, … Read more

Antimicrobial stewardship

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Antimicrobial stewardship

Antimicrobial stewardship is the coordinated set of actions that ensures the optimal selection, dosing, route, and duration of antimicrobial therapy to improve clinical outcomes while minimizing toxicity, resistance, and costs. It is operationalized globally through frameworks such as the CDC Core Elements, IDSA/SHEA implementation guidelines, WHO AWaRe resources, and national guidance like NICE, which together … Read more