Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Amitriptyline, a prototypical tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), represents a cornerstone agent in psychopharmacology with a complex and multifaceted pharmacological profile. Initially synthesized in the early 1960s, its introduction marked a significant advancement in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Despite the subsequent development of newer antidepressant classes with improved tolerability, such as selective serotonin reuptake … Read more

Introduction/Overview Fluoxetine represents a cornerstone agent in the psychopharmacological armamentarium, being the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) approved for clinical use. Its introduction in the late 1980s marked a paradigm shift in the treatment of depression and related disorders, offering an improved tolerability and safety profile compared to the tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase … Read more

Introduction/Overview Clozapine represents a cornerstone in the psychopharmacological management of severe psychiatric disorders, distinguished by its unique efficacy and complex safety profile. As the prototypical atypical antipsychotic, its development marked a significant departure from conventional neuroleptics, offering therapeutic benefits for patients unresponsive to standard treatments. The clinical importance of clozapine is primarily anchored in its … Read more

Introduction/Overview Chlorpromazine, introduced into clinical practice in the 1950s, represents a landmark therapeutic agent in the history of psychopharmacology. Its discovery and subsequent application fundamentally altered the management of severe psychiatric disorders, facilitating the deinstitutionalization movement and establishing the foundation for modern neuroleptic therapy. As the prototypical typical, or first-generation, antipsychotic, chlorpromazine belongs to the … Read more

Introduction/Overview Haloperidol represents a cornerstone agent in the class of typical antipsychotic medications, primarily employed in the management of psychotic disorders and acute agitation. First synthesized in 1958 by Paul Janssen, its introduction marked a significant advancement in psychopharmacology, offering an alternative to the phenothiazines with a distinct chemical structure and a potentially different side … Read more

Introduction/Overview Levodopa, or L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), represents the cornerstone of pharmacological therapy for Parkinson’s disease. Its introduction in the late 1960s revolutionized the management of this neurodegenerative disorder, providing profound symptomatic relief and significantly improving patient quality of life and mortality. As a metabolic precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine, levodopa is designed to bypass the blood-brain … Read more

Introduction/Overview Ethosuximide represents a cornerstone in the pharmacological management of absence (petit mal) seizures, a specific type of generalized non-convulsive epilepsy. As a first-line therapeutic agent for this indication, its clinical utility has been established for decades, though its precise molecular mechanism was elucidated more recently. The drug’s introduction marked a significant advancement in antiepileptic … Read more

Introduction/Overview Sodium valproate, often referred to as valproate or valproic acid, represents a cornerstone agent in the therapeutic management of epilepsy and bipolar disorder. Initially synthesized in 1882 as an organic solvent, its anticonvulsant properties were discovered serendipitously in 1962 when it was used as a vehicle for other compounds being screened. Since its introduction … Read more

Introduction/Overview Carbamazepine is a tricyclic compound with a chemical structure related to the tricyclic antidepressants, yet its primary pharmacological actions are distinct, centering on the modulation of neuronal excitability. First introduced into clinical practice in the 1960s as an agent for trigeminal neuralgia, its utility was subsequently expanded to the treatment of epilepsy. It has … Read more

Introduction/Overview Phenytoin, introduced into clinical practice in 1938, represents a cornerstone agent in the management of seizure disorders. As one of the oldest and most extensively studied antiepileptic drugs, its enduring clinical utility is balanced by a complex pharmacological profile characterized by non-linear pharmacokinetics and a narrow therapeutic index. The drug’s primary role involves the … Read more