Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Carbimazole represents a cornerstone in the medical management of hyperthyroidism, a condition characterized by excessive synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones. As a thionamide derivative, it functions as a prodrug, exerting its therapeutic effects following metabolic conversion. The clinical relevance of carbimazole is substantial, given the prevalence of disorders such as Graves’ disease and … Read more

1. Introduction/Overview Levothyroxine sodium, the synthetic sodium salt of the L-isomer of thyroxine (T4), represents the cornerstone of thyroid hormone replacement therapy. As a bioidentical hormone, its pharmacology is intrinsically linked to the physiology of endogenous thyroid hormone synthesis and action. The clinical management of hypothyroidism, one of the most prevalent endocrine disorders globally, is … Read more

Introduction/Overview Glibenclamide, also known as glyburide in the United States, represents a cornerstone oral hypoglycemic agent within the sulfonylurea class. Its introduction marked a significant advancement in the pharmacological management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, providing a means to augment endogenous insulin secretion. The drug’s primary clinical relevance stems from its potent insulinotropic effect, which … Read more

Introduction/Overview Metformin, a dimethylbiguanide, represents a cornerstone in the pharmacological management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Its clinical introduction in the late 1950s and subsequent widespread adoption have established it as a first-line oral antihyperglycemic agent. The drug’s enduring relevance stems from its robust efficacy, favorable safety profile, and association with potential benefits beyond glycemic … Read more

1. Introduction/Overview Insulin represents a cornerstone of pharmacotherapy for diabetes mellitus, a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The discovery of insulin in 1921 by Banting, Best, Collip, and Macleod transformed type 1 diabetes from a universally fatal disease into a manageable chronic condition. As a … Read more

Introduction/Overview Disulfiram represents a cornerstone pharmacotherapeutic agent in the management of chronic alcohol use disorder, operating through a distinctive aversive mechanism rather than by reducing craving or inducing euphoria. Originally investigated in the 1930s for its potential as an anti-parasitic agent, its profound interaction with ethanol was serendipitously discovered, leading to its subsequent development and … Read more

Introduction/Overview Ethanol, or ethyl alcohol, is a simple two-carbon alcohol (CH3CH2OH) that represents one of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances globally. Its use spans recreational, cultural, ritualistic, and, to a limited extent, therapeutic contexts. The pharmacology of ethanol is complex, involving non-specific interactions with multiple neuronal systems and a metabolism that follows non-linear kinetics. … Read more

Introduction/Overview Thiopental sodium, a thiobarbiturate derivative, represents a cornerstone agent in the history of intravenous anesthesia. First introduced into clinical practice in the 1930s, it revolutionized anesthetic induction by providing rapid, predictable onset of unconsciousness. Although its use has declined in many settings with the advent of newer agents like propofol, thiopental retains significant clinical … Read more

Introduction/Overview Lithium carbonate represents a cornerstone in the psychopharmacological management of mood disorders, possessing a unique therapeutic profile distinct from other psychotropic agents. Its introduction into modern psychiatry in the mid-20th century marked a pivotal advancement, providing the first effective maintenance treatment for bipolar disorder. The clinical utility of lithium extends beyond acute mania to … Read more