📋 Table of Contents Introduction to Diuretics Nephron Physiology – A Quick Review Classification of Diuretics Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors Osmotic Diuretics Loop Diuretics Thiazide & Thiazide-Like Diuretics Potassium-Sparing Diuretics ADH Antagonists (Vaptans) Comparative Analysis Electrolyte Disturbances Clinical Applications & Guidelines Drug Interactions Special Populations Key Takeaways 💧 1. Introduction to Diuretics Diuretics are a class … Read more
Introduction/Overview Angina pectoris, characterized by transient chest discomfort due to myocardial ischemia, represents a cardinal manifestation of coronary artery disease. The underlying pathophysiology involves an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand. Pharmacological management aims to correct this imbalance, alleviate symptoms, improve exercise tolerance, and reduce the risk of adverse cardiovascular events. The selection of … Read more
1. Introduction to Cardiac Electrophysiology Understanding antiarrhythmic drugs requires a foundational understanding of the cardiac action potential (AP) and the ion channels that govern it. Cardiac arrhythmia is defined as any abnormality in the site of origin of the cardiac impulse, its rate and regularity, or its conduction. 1.1 Types of Cardiac Cells & Action … Read more
1. Introduction to Lipoproteins and Lipid Metabolism Hyperlipidemia (or dyslipidemia) is defined as an elevation in plasma lipids, including cholesterol, cholesterol esters, triglycerides (TGs), and phospholipids. These lipids are insoluble in water and must be transported in the blood complexed with specialized proteins known as apoproteins (apolipoproteins). The lipid-protein complex is called a lipoprotein. Figure … Read more
I. Introduction and Electrophysiological Basis Cardiac arrhythmias are disorders of the heart rate or rhythm caused by abnormalities in electrical impulse formation or conduction. Antiarrhythmic drugs (AADs) aim to restore normal sinus rhythm (NSR) or control ventricular rate, though they are characterized by a narrow therapeutic index and a paradoxical potential to induce lethal arrhythmias … Read more
Introduction Cardiac arrhythmias—or disturbances in the normal electrical rhythm of the heart—represent a complex spectrum of disorders that can range from benign to life-threatening (Katzung, 2020). In normal physiology, the synchronized contraction of cardiac muscle cells promotes efficient pumping of blood. The timely, sequential electrical activation of the atria and ventricles depends on a finely … Read more
Introduction Angina pectoris, often referred to simply as angina, is chest pain or discomfort that arises when the myocardial oxygen supply is insufficient to meet the heart’s metabolic demands. As a cardinal manifestation of coronary artery disease (CAD), angina affects millions of people worldwide, posing a significant burden on healthcare systems and patient quality of … Read more
Introduction Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic blocker, has been a mainstay in the treatment of various cardiovascular diseases. First synthesized in the 1960s, it revolutionized the management of conditions like hypertension, angina pectoris, and cardiac arrhythmias. Chemical Structure and Properties Propranolol is a synthetic, non-selective beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist. Its chemical structure is (RS)-1-(isopropylamino)-3-(1-naphthyloxy)propan-2-ol. This lipophilic compound has … Read more
Introduction Amiodarone is a potent, pleiotropic antiarrhythmic agent classified as a Vaughan-Williams Class III drug, renowned for its efficacy in managing a wide spectrum of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. Its complex pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic features distinguish it among antiarrhythmics, demanding thorough understanding for safe and effective clinical use. Amiodarone is widely utilized for both acute and chronic … Read more
Introduction Lidocaine is one of the most commonly used local anesthetics and antiarrhythmic agents in clinical medicine. Since its first introduction in the 1940s, lidocaine has revolutionized minor surgical procedures, regional anesthesia, and the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias, particularly those of ventricular origin (Katzung, 2020). With both amide-based local anesthetic properties and significant sodium channel blocking capabilities, lidocaine’s versatility renders it a mainstay in … Read more