I. Introduction and Definition Diabetes mellitus defines a group of inherited and acquired metabolic disorders marked by hyperglycemia resulting from absolute (Type 1) or relative (Type 2) deficiencies in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. Chronic hyperglycemia leads to multisystem complications impacting eyes, kidneys, nerves, cardiovascular and immune systems. II. Types and Epidemiology A. Major Types … Read more
Introduction Discovered almost a century ago, insulin remains a cornerstone of therapy for diabetes mellitus—a global health challenge characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and/or insufficient insulin secretion. Beyond diabetes, insulin also plays pivotal roles in metabolic research and critical care (e.g., hyperkalemia management). Fundamentally, insulin drives glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue, regulates hepatic glucose output, … Read more
Introduction to Anticancer Drugs: Anticancer drugs are medications that inhibit the development and spread of cancerous cells. They achieve this by interfering with the DNA and RNA that cause cell division. Since cancer cells divide more rapidly than normal cells, they are more susceptible to these drugs. Classification of Anticancer Drugs: 1. Alkylating Agents: 2. … Read more
1 · Introduction Vomiting (emesis) is an evolutionarily conserved defence reflex that forcefully expels gastric—and at times intestinal—contents through the mouth. Although the motor act seems singular, it is orchestrated by a distributed brain-stem network that integrates sensory danger signals from the gut, the bloodstream, the vestibular system and higher cortical areas. Two functional loci dominate … Read more
Introduction Nausea and vomiting are defensive reflexes that protect the body from ingested toxins and noxious substances, but they can also emerge from various benign or pathological stimuli. From motion sickness and morning sickness to chemotherapy-induced and postoperative nausea and vomiting, these symptoms can significantly impact quality of life. Consequently, the search for effective antiemetic drugs has long been a priority in pharmacology and clinical … Read more
Introduction Alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonists, commonly referred to as alpha-blockers, form a crucial element in the pharmacologic management of several cardiovascular and genitourinary conditions. By blocking alpha-1 and/or alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, these agents cause a diverse array of effects, from vasodilation in peripheral blood vessels to smooth muscle relaxation in the bladder neck and prostate. Clinicians frequently use alpha-blockers to treat hypertension, benign prostatic … Read more
Introduction Beta blockers, also known as β-adrenergic receptor antagonists, are a foundational class of cardiovascular drugs used to treat hypertension, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, arrhythmias, and other conditions. By blocking the actions of catecholamines—particularly norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline)—at β-adrenergic receptors, these agents reduce sympathetic overstimulation and exert a range of beneficial clinical effects. … Read more
Introduction to Alpha Agonists: Alpha agonists are a class of drugs that primarily act on alpha-adrenergic receptors. These receptors are part of the sympathetic nervous system and respond to the neurotransmitters epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). When activated, alpha receptors typically cause constriction of blood vessels and an increase in blood pressure. Alpha agonists can … Read more
Introduction to Beta Receptors: Beta receptors are adrenergic receptors that respond to the neurotransmitters epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). They are part of the G-protein-coupled receptor family and play a crucial role in the sympathetic nervous system, responsible for the “fight or flight” response. There are three main types of beta receptors: beta-1 (β1), beta-2 … Read more
Introduction to Beta-Agonists: Beta-agonists are medications that stimulate beta receptors in the body. These receptors are found in various tissues, including the lungs, heart, and blood vessels. Due to their effects, beta-agonists are commonly used to treat conditions like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and certain heart conditions. Classification of Beta-Agonists: Mechanism of action: … Read more