Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (ZES)

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ZE syndrome

I. Definition, Historical Perspective & Epidemiology Zollinger–Ellison Syndrome (ZES) is a rare disorder characterized by gastrin-secreting tumors (“gastrinomas”) of the pancreas or duodenum. These tumors lead to excessive gastric acid secretion, resulting in recurrent, treatment-resistant peptic ulcers, severe gastroesophageal reflux, and diarrhea.​ II. Pathophysiology 1. Gastrinoma Biology 2. Mechanism—Gastrin Overproduction 3. Resultant Clinical Effects III. Clinical … Read more

Pharmacovigilance

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pharmacovigilence

1 · Introduction Pharmacovigilance (PV) is the “science and activities relating to the detection, assessment, understanding and prevention of adverse effects or any other medicine-related problem” (WHO). In an era of precision medicine, globalised supply chains and accelerated approvals, PV has become indispensable for safeguarding patients throughout the therapeutic life-cycle—from first-in-human dosing to decades of post-marketing … Read more

Pharmacology of Oxytocin

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oxytocin-word-love-hormone-medical-concept-scaled

Oxytocin, a neuropeptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland, has garnered significant attention in recent years due to its diverse physiological and psychological effects. Often referred to as the “love hormone” or “cuddle chemical,” oxytocin plays a crucial role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, and maternal behaviour. This article … Read more

Pharmacology of Tocolytic Agents

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tocolytic agents

I. Introduction Tocolytic agents are medications used to inhibit uterine contractions and suppress premature labor, thereby prolonging pregnancy long enough for vital fetal benefits—particularly the administration of antenatal corticosteroids and safe transfer to an appropriate facility. Modern practice focuses on maximizing neonatal outcomes while minimizing maternal and fetal risks, as no tocolytic is conclusively shown to … Read more

Pharmacology of thyroid and antithyroid drugs – an Overview

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thyroid and antithyroid drugs

Physiology of Thyroid Hormones Thyroid Hormone Synthesis The thyroid secretes T4 and T3, the synthesis of which depends on dietary iodine or iodide supplements.– Iodide ion is actively taken up by the thyroid, where it is converted to elemental iodine by thyroidal peroxidase.– The protein thyroglobulin acts as a scaffold for thyroid hormone synthesis, with … Read more

Pharmacology of Prostaglandin Analogues

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prostaglandin analogues

I. Introduction Prostaglandins are autacoids derived from arachidonic acid via the cyclooxygenase pathway and modulate numerous physiological processes—vascular tone, inflammation, gastric cytoprotection, uterine contraction, and intraocular pressure. Prostaglandin analogues are synthetic structural or functional mimetics designed to replicate or enhance one or more actions of natural prostaglandins, often with improved pharmacokinetics and receptor selectivity. Their … Read more

Pharmacology of Diphenhydramine

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Diphenhydramine

Introduction Diphenhydramine is a prototypical first-generation antihistamine with a long history of clinical use for allergic reactions, insomnia, motion sickness, and a variety of off-label applications. Its popularity in both prescription and over-the-counter preparations is a testament to its versatility, but its significant sedative and anticholinergic properties necessitate a deep understanding for safe and effective use. … Read more

Pharmacology of Levocetirizine

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levocetrizine

Introduction Levocetirizine is a second-generation antihistamine, serving as the pharmacologically active R-enantiomer of cetirizine. Commonly prescribed for chronic allergic rhinitis and chronic idiopathic urticaria, levocetirizine delivers high efficacy with a low risk of sedation, improving over first-generation antihistamines through minimisation of CNS side effects due to limited blood-brain barrier penetration.​ Chemical Structure & Classification Mechanism … Read more

Pharmacology of Histamine and Antihistamines

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antihistamine

Overview Histamine is a ubiquitous biogenic amine that influences vascular tone and permeability, sensory nerve activity (especially itch), airway smooth muscle, gastric acid secretion, and central nervous system arousal. Among its diverse receptor subtypes (H1–H4), the H1 receptor is the dominant mediator of the hallmark symptoms of immediate-type (type I) allergic reactions in the skin … Read more

Histamine and Antihistamines

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anithistamines

Introduction Histamine stands as a fundamental mediator in allergic reactions, inflammatory processes, and various physiological functions such as gastric acid secretion and neurotransmission. Endogenously, it is produced and stored predominantly in mast cells and basophils, with additional roles in neurons. When released, histamine exerts significant effects on smooth muscles, vascular endothelium, and secretory tissues, orchestrating symptoms associated with … Read more