Pharmacology

Pharmacotherapy of Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)

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peptic ulcer disease (PUD)

Introduction Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) encompasses the formation of ulcers in the stomach (gastric ulcer) or duodenum (duodenal ulcer), primarily caused by gastric acid hypersecretion and/or compromised defense of the gastric and duodenal mucosa. While Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection remains a principal etiology for many cases, other contributing factors include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), stress-related mucosal injury, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (gastrinoma). Clinically, patients may present … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Bronchial Asthma

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Bronchial asthma

Introduction Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness, variable airflow obstruction, and repeated episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and dyspnea. This condition affects more than 300 million people worldwide, imposing a significant burden on healthcare systems, impacting economic productivity, and compromising quality of life (Goodman & Gilman, 2018). While the etiology of asthma includes a complex interplay … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Cough

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cough

Introduction Cough is a protective reflex integral to clearing the airways of irritants, secretions, and foreign matter. Without a properly functioning cough mechanism, the risk of airway obstruction, infection, and subsequent respiratory complications increases significantly. Despite this physiological importance, persistent or unproductive cough can be disruptive, painful, and socially distressing. Chronic cough, typically defined as one lasting more than 8 weeks, can also be a … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Parkinson’s Disease

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Parkinson's Disease

Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized predominantly by motor symptoms including bradykinesia, rest tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. These cardinal clinical features trace back to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to reduced dopamine levels within the striatum of the basal ganglia. Along with the hallmark motor findings, patients often experience a variety of non-motor symptoms such as cognitive impairment, psychiatric manifestations, sleep disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, and sensory changes. … Read more

Pharmacology of Sedative-Hypnotics

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Sedative-Hypnotics

Introduction Sedative-hypnotics are a class of medications primarily utilized to induce sedation (calming) or hypnosis (sleep). These central nervous system (CNS) depressants work by enhancing inhibitory neurotransmission within the brain, thereby diminishing alertness, reducing anxiety, and facilitating the onset or maintenance of sleep. The broad category of sedative-hypnotics encompasses a variety of drug families, including benzodiazepines, barbiturates, non-benzodiazepine “Z-drugs”, and several others … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Antidepressants

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Antidepressant Drugs or antidepressants

Introduction Antidepressant medications are a cornerstone of modern psychiatric care, offering relief and long-term stabilization for individuals experiencing major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other related conditions. These drugs emerged as a groundbreaking treatment alternative to earlier therapies, such as electroconvulsive therapy and long-term institutionalization. Over time, the pharmacology of antidepressants has become more refined, with newer … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Tuberculosis (TB)

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Tuberculosis

Introduction Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially severe infectious disease caused primarily by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. While TB most commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary tuberculosis), it can also spread to other parts of the body, including lymph nodes, bones, and the central nervous system (extrapulmonary tuberculosis). Despite global health efforts and declines in incidence in … Read more

Pharmacotherapy of Glaucoma

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pharmacotherapy of glaucoma

Introduction Glaucoma is a group of progressive ocular disorders characterized by damage to the optic nerve, often associated with elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Over time, this damage can lead to irreversible vision loss. According to the World Health Organization, glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness worldwide. As our global population ages, the … Read more

Pharmacology of Sympathomimetics: Mechanisms, Clinical Applications, and Safety

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sympathomimetics

Introduction to Sympathomimetics Sympathomimetic medications—also known as adrenergic agonists—are a diverse group of pharmacological agents that mimic the physiological actions of endogenous catecholamines (e.g., norepinephrine and epinephrine) and other neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). These compounds are widely used in critical care, anesthesiology, cardiology, and various other medical fields for their potent cardiovascular, … Read more

History of Pharmacology

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history of pharmacology

Pharmacology is the science that examines how drugs interact with living systems, encompassing the discovery, composition, properties, therapeutic uses, and toxicology of medications. Its history spans thousands of years, weaving through the earliest attempts to harness the healing powers of plants, to the modern-day quest for targeted therapies based on molecular insights. This historical narrative … Read more