Introduction/Overview Enalapril represents a cornerstone therapeutic agent within the antihypertensive and cardioprotective pharmacopeia. As a prodrug of the active metabolite enalaprilat, it belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class. The development of ACE inhibitors marked a paradigm shift in the management of cardiovascular and renal diseases, moving beyond symptomatic blood pressure reduction to targeting … Read more
Introduction/Overview Captopril represents a landmark therapeutic agent in cardiovascular medicine as the first orally active inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) to be introduced into clinical practice. Its development in the late 1970s, derived from peptides found in the venom of the Brazilian pit viper Bothrops jararaca, fundamentally altered the management of hypertension and heart failure. … Read more
1. Introduction/Overview Mannitol is a pharmacologically inert sugar alcohol that occupies a unique and critical position in therapeutic arsenals due to its potent osmotic properties. As a first-line agent for the reduction of acutely elevated intracranial and intraocular pressure, its clinical utility extends across multiple medical specialties including neurology, neurosurgery, ophthalmology, nephrology, and critical care. … Read more
Introduction/Overview Spironolactone represents a cornerstone therapeutic agent within the class of potassium-sparing diuretics and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Initially synthesized in the late 1950s, its clinical utility has expanded significantly from its original indication as a diuretic to become a fundamental treatment in the management of chronic heart failure, resistant hypertension, and conditions characterized by hyperaldosteronism. … Read more
Introduction/Overview Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic that has been a cornerstone of antihypertensive therapy for over six decades. Its introduction in the late 1950s marked a significant advancement in the management of hypertension and edematous states, providing an oral agent with reliable efficacy and a generally favorable tolerability profile. As a sulfonamide derivative, hydrochlorothiazide exerts … Read more
1. Introduction/Overview Furosemide represents a cornerstone therapeutic agent within the class of loop diuretics, distinguished by its potent efficacy in promoting sodium and water excretion. Its introduction in the 1960s marked a significant advancement in the management of edematous states and hypertension, fundamentally altering treatment paradigms for conditions characterized by fluid overload. As a high-ceiling … Read more
Introduction/Overview Montelukast represents a cornerstone in the prophylactic and chronic management of asthma and allergic rhinitis, belonging to the therapeutic class of leukotriene receptor antagonists. Its development marked a significant advancement in the understanding and modulation of the inflammatory pathways underlying obstructive airway diseases. Unlike bronchodilators that provide immediate symptom relief, montelukast exerts its effects … Read more
Introduction/Overview Ipratropium bromide represents a cornerstone in the management of obstructive airway diseases, particularly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). As a quaternary ammonium derivative of atropine, it functions as a competitive antagonist at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Its development marked a significant advancement in respiratory therapeutics by providing bronchodilation with markedly reduced systemic anticholinergic effects compared … Read more
Introduction/Overview Theophylline, a methylxanthine derivative, represents one of the oldest classes of therapeutic agents still in clinical use for respiratory diseases. Its historical use dates back centuries, with natural sources like tea leaves containing related xanthines. Modern clinical application primarily focuses on its bronchodilatory properties, though its therapeutic utility is tempered by a narrow therapeutic … Read more
1. Introduction/Overview Salbutamol, also known internationally as albuterol, represents a cornerstone medication in the management of reversible airway obstruction. As a selective beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist, its primary therapeutic action is the relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle, leading to rapid bronchodilation. The clinical introduction of salbutamol marked a significant advancement in respiratory therapeutics, offering a more … Read more