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Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized predominantly by motor symptoms including bradykinesia, rest tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. These cardinal clinical features trace back to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, leading to reduced dopamine levels within the striatum of the basal ganglia. Along with the hallmark motor findings, patients often experience a variety of non-motor symptoms such as cognitive impairment, psychiatric manifestations, sleep disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, and sensory changes. … Read more

Introduction Glaucoma is a group of progressive ocular disorders characterized by damage to the optic nerve, often associated with elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). Over time, this damage can lead to irreversible vision loss. According to the World Health Organization, glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness worldwide. As our global population ages, the … Read more

Introduction to Sympathomimetics Sympathomimetic medications—also known as adrenergic agonists—are a diverse group of pharmacological agents that mimic the physiological actions of endogenous catecholamines (e.g., norepinephrine and epinephrine) and other neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). These compounds are widely used in critical care, anesthesiology, cardiology, and various other medical fields for their potent cardiovascular, … Read more