1 · Introduction Drugs are double-edged swords: while they alleviate symptoms, modify disease course and often save lives, they also generate harm. This harm can arise from adverse drug reactions (ADRs), defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “a response to a medicine which is noxious, unintended and occurs at doses normally used in … Read more
Introduction Drug interactions are a central topic in clinical pharmacology, profoundly impacting therapeutic efficacy, safety, and patient outcomes. While drug interactions are often discussed in terms of adverse effects or prescribing errors, they also provide opportunities for clinical synergy, rational polypharmacy, and new drug discovery when properly understood. Given the complexity and ubiquity of polypharmacy, … Read more
Pharmacodynamics is a branch of pharmacology that focuses on the study of how drugs interact with the body at the molecular, cellular, and systemic levels to produce their effects. It involves understanding the mechanisms of drug action (MOA), including drug-receptor interactions, signal transduction pathways, and the pharmacological effects of drugs. “What drug does to the … Read more
Pharmacokinetics, derived from the Greek words ‘pharmakon’ meaning drug, and ‘kinesis’ meaning movement, is the science that elucidates what the body does to a drug following administration. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how drugs move through the body. It includes processes like absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), which determine how much of the drug … Read more
Drug discovery and development is an intricate and multifaceted process that encompasses identifying, designing, and testing prospective new drugs. The primary objective is to discover secure and effective treatments for various ailments and conditions. This composition will delve into the various stages of drug design and screening and the several phases of clinical trials. Drug … Read more
Introduction to General Pharmacology General pharmacology covers the fundamental principles of pharmacology, including Drug discovery and development, Souces of Drugs, Dosage forms, Routes of drug administration, Pharmacokinetics, Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, Drug interactions and Adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Understanding these principles is crucial for healthcare professionals, researchers, and students to act safely and effectively using medications. Drug Discovery and Development The Comprehensive … Read more
Oral drug absorption is a critical process that determines the efficacy and safety of a medication. The bioavailability of a drug depends on various factors, including physical properties, dosage forms, physiological factors, pharmacogenetic factors, and disease states. This article discusses these factors in detail to understand how they affect the absorption and bioavailability of orally … Read more
Understanding the action of drugs on the autonomic nervous system (ANS) can be simplified by drawing a comparison with the adrenaline/epinephrine-induced fight, flight, and fright response. This response, also known as the acute stress response, is the body’s physiological reaction to perceived harmful events, attacks, or threats to survival. To better comprehend the role of … Read more
Introduction Mood disorders—including bipolar disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and certain forms of unipolar depression—are chronic and debilitating mental health conditions. Characterized by pathologic mood swings, from manic or hypomanic states to severe depressive episodes, they entail significant morbidity, mortality (through suicide), and a profound impact on patient quality of life and functioning. Mood stabilizers constitute a cornerstone of … Read more
Immunomodulators are drugs that can either suppress or enhance the activity of the immune system. These are two types: Introduction Immunosuppressants comprise a diverse group of drugs that inhibit or modulate immune system activity. They serve crucial roles in solid-organ transplantation (preventing graft rejection), autoimmune diseases (hindering pathological immune attacks), and certain inflammatory conditions. By downregulating … Read more