1. Overview & Clinical Importance Alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) is a potentially life-threatening condition that follows the abrupt cessation or reduction of heavy, prolonged alcohol consumption. It is common in hospital and psychiatric settings, and timely recognition and management are critical for optimal outcomes. Chronic alcohol intake leads to neuroadaptations in GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission; withdrawal … Read more
Methanol (methyl alcohol, wood alcohol) is a simple aliphatic alcohol with significant toxicological importance. It is colorless, volatile, and commonly used as a solvent, antifreeze, fuel, and in industrial chemical processes. Accidental or intentional ingestion of methanol, as well as inhalation or dermal exposure, can result in severe toxicity and death. The cardinal feature of … Read more
Introduction Organophosphorus (OP) compounds, a broad class of chemicals primarily used as pesticides (insecticides) and, less ethically, as chemical warfare agents (nerve gases), pose a significant challenge in both developed and developing nations (Katzung, 2020). Poisoning from OP agents remains a leading cause of acute morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly in rural settings where pesticides are extensively deployed in … Read more
Introduction Have you ever wondered about the drugs that counteract the effects of the sympathetic nervous system? Sympatholytics, also known as adrenergic antagonists, are one such class of drugs. This article will dive into the classification, pharmacological actions, clinical uses, adverse effects, and contraindications of different types of sympatholytic drugs. So, let’s get started! Sympatholytics … Read more
Introduction Parasympatholytics, also known as anticholinergics, are a class of drugs that inhibit the actions of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on parasympathetic nerve endings. These drugs can be classified based on their mode of action and target sites. This article will delve into the classification of parasympatholytics, individual drug pharmacological actions, clinical uses, adverse effects, atropine … Read more
1 · Overview Atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine are tropane alkaloids concentrated in plants of the Solanaceae family—most notably Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) and Datura stramonium (jimson-weed). These compounds act as potent competitive antagonists at muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, producing the classic “anticholinergic toxidrome.” Untreated, severe poisoning may culminate in seizures, hyperthermia, rhabdomyolysis, dysrhythmia or respiratory failure … Read more
Introduction Parasympathomimetics — also referred to as cholinergic agonists or muscarinic agonists—are a class of medications that enhance or mimic the actions of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The PNS is one subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, often described as the “rest and digest” branch. Through stimulation of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, parasympathomimetics elicit various physiological responses such … Read more
1 · Introduction Sympathomimetic agents—or adrenergic agonists—comprise a pharmacological super-family that mimics or amplifies the actions of endogenous catecholamines (noradrenaline, adrenaline and dopamine) at α1, α2, β1, β2, β3 and dopaminergic receptors. Their capacity to modulate cardiovascular tone, airway calibre, intra-ocular pressure, central arousal and metabolic flux renders them indispensable across emergency medicine, anaesthesia, respiratory … Read more
Clinical pharmacokinetics (PK) is the science of quantifying how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in humans, and applying that knowledge to optimize therapy for individual patients. Its goals are to achieve target drug exposures that maximize efficacy and minimize toxicity, accounting for patient-specific factors such as organ function, age, genetics, comorbidities, and concomitant … Read more
1 · Introduction Drugs are double-edged swords: while they alleviate symptoms, modify disease course and often save lives, they also generate harm. This harm can arise from adverse drug reactions (ADRs), defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “a response to a medicine which is noxious, unintended and occurs at doses normally used in … Read more