Understanding Alteplase: The Tissue Plasminogen Activator You Need to Know

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alteplase a tissue plasminogen activator

Introduction Alteplase (also referred to as recombinant tissue plasminogen activator or rt-PA) is a cornerstone of thrombolytic therapy, widely used to treat acute ischemic stroke, acute myocardial infarction, and other thromboembolic conditions. As a bioengineered form of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), alteplase exerts its therapeutic effect by converting plasminogen to plasmin, thereby dissolving clots that obstruct blood flow … Read more

Sodium Channel Blockers (SCBs)

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Sodium Channel Blockers

Introduction Sodium (Na⁺) channels are integral membrane proteins responsible for the rapid upstroke (phase 0) of the action potential in excitable cells such as neurons and cardiomyocytes. By selectively perming sodium ions across membranes, these channels facilitate depolarization, triggering electrical signals essential for neurotransmission, skeletal muscle contraction, and cardiac conduction. As a result, therapeutic modulation … Read more

What is Barbiturate toxicity, and how is it treated?

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Barbiturate toxicity

Introduction to Barbiturate Toxicity: Barbiturates, once hailed for their sedative and anticonvulsant properties, have a narrow therapeutic window, making them susceptible to overdose. While their clinical use has diminished over the years in favor of safer alternatives, cases of barbiturate toxicity still emerge, often with life-threatening consequences. Whether due to accidental ingestion, drug interactions, or … Read more

Pharmacology of Barbiturates

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Barbiturates

Introduction Barbiturates are among the earliest classes of sedative-hypnotic drugs discovered and used clinically. Derived from barbituric acid, these compounds exert a depressant influence on the central nervous system (CNS), leading to sedation, hypnosis, or anesthesia, depending on the dose. Historically, barbiturates revolutionized the treatment of insomnia, anxiety, and seizures, though concerns over tolerance, dependence, overdose, and risks associated with respiratory depression have led to their gradual replacement … Read more

Pharmacology of Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for depression

Introduction Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) revolutionized the treatment of depression and related affective disorders in the late 20th century. Since their introduction, SSRIs have become the first-line pharmacological treatment for mild, moderate, and even severe depressive episodes. Beyond depression, these drugs find a broad spectrum of applications, including anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), eating disorders, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder … Read more

Pharmacology of Paracetamol/Acetaminophen

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Paracetamol

Introduction Paracetamol—known as acetaminophen in some regions—is one of the most widely used analgesics and antipyretics. Celebrated for its efficacy and relatively favorable safety profile compared to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioids, paracetamol has become a mainstay of pain management protocols worldwide (Goodman & Gilman, 2018). It is commonly prescribed or bought over-the-counter for mild to … Read more

Aspirin: A Comprehensive Pharmacological Overview

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Aspirin

Aspirin, scientifically known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a cornerstone in the world of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). With its multifaceted roles as an analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory agent, aspirin has secured its position as one of the most frequently administered medications worldwide. Mechanism of Action At the heart of aspirin’s mechanism is its ability to irreversibly … Read more

Understanding Cyclooxygenase (COX) Enzymes

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Cyclooxygenase

Cyclooxygenase (COX), which is also called prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase (PTGS), is an enzyme that converts arachidonic acid into prostanoids like thromboxane and prostaglandins like prostacyclin. This enzyme is a member of the animal-type heme peroxidase family and is also referred to as prostaglandin G/H synthase. The specific reaction it catalyzes involves the conversion of arachidonic acid … Read more

Pharmacology of Benzodiazepines

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Benzodiazepines

Introduction Benzodiazepines are a cornerstone of modern pharmacotherapy for anxiety, insomnia, seizure disorders, muscle spasms, and other related conditions. By enhancing the effects of the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), these drugs can reduce excessive neuronal excitability and provide sedation, anxiolysis, anticonvulsant action, and muscle relaxation. Their relatively favorable therapeutic index, compared … Read more

Pharmacology of Antitussives

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landscape image of antitussives

Introduction A cough is one of the most common clinical symptoms that prompts patients to seek medical care. Although it serves a critical protective role in clearing secretions, irritants, and pathogens from the airways, an excessive or persistent cough can compromise quality of life, disrupt daily activities, and impair sleep. The term “antitussives” refers to a broad … Read more