Steady state is a cornerstone concept in clinical pharmacokinetics. It connects dose, dosing interval, and patient-specific clearance to the drug concentrations that drive therapeutic and adverse effects. Yet, “steady state” is often misunderstood or oversimplified. This chapter explains what steady state is (and is not), how it arises under different dosing schemes, how to calculate … Read more
There are four classes of drug receptors, G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, enzyme-linked receptors (receptor tyrosine kinases and cytokine receptors), and intracellular nuclear receptors, each of which transmits its signals through different, but well-defined pathways, from ligand binding to cellular action. ⓘ Quick overview Most receptor pharmacology is organized into four classes: ligand-gated ion … Read more
Main Takeaway: India lacks a unified regulatory framework for OTC drugs, creating a complex landscape where medications not listed as prescription-only are sold over-the-counter. With 62.3% of urban populations practicing self-medication and an estimated market value of ₹188.6 billion, the CDSCO’s upcoming 2025 OTC Drug Regulation represents a significant step toward establishing proper oversight and … Read more
Main Takeaway: Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are non-prescription medications available directly to consumers for self-treatment of common ailments. With over 800 active ingredients comprising more than 100,000 products, OTC medications provide safe and effective treatment when used as directed, though they require careful attention to labeling and proper usage to avoid potential risks. 1. Definition and … Read more
Main Takeaway: A P-drug is a prescriber’s personal choice of first-line medicine for a specific indication, selected through a systematic and evidence-based process. Developing and maintaining a personal formulary of P-drugs streamlines decision-making, promotes rational therapeutics, and enhances patient safety. 1. Definition and Purpose of P-Drugs A P-drug (“personal drug”) is not merely the generic … Read more
Introduction Antiviral pharmacology has advanced from the single-agent era of idoxuridine to a modern arsenal including polymerase terminators, protease blockers, monoclonal antibodies, and host-directed entry inhibitors. Because viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, therapy emphasises selective toxicity—halting viral replication without irreparable host harm. This page delivers a section-wise, visually enhanced overview of the major antiviral classes, mechanisms, … Read more
Introduction Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a complex autoimmune disorder requiring comprehensive pharmacological management throughout the patient’s lifetime. Since the discovery of insulin over a century ago, numerous advancements have dramatically improved treatment options and quality of life for individuals with T1DM. This report provides a detailed overview of current and emerging pharmacotherapies for … Read more
Introduction Broad-spectrum antibiotics stand at the forefront of infectious disease management, enabling healthcare professionals to effectively target a wide variety of bacterial pathogens without waiting for definitive culture results. Within this category, tetracyclines and chloramphenicol occupy unique positions in the pharmacological arsenal due to their broad coverage, distinctive mechanisms of action, and historical prominence in the treatment of critical … Read more
Introduction Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a unique bacterial pathogen that causes a spectrum of respiratory infections, ranging from mild tracheobronchitis to severe pneumonia [1]. Unlike many typical bacteria, it lacks a conventional cell wall, relying instead on a specialized cell membrane containing sterols to maintain cellular integrity [2]. This absence of a cell wall renders β-lactam … Read more
Introduction Erectile dysfunction (ED), defined as the consistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain an erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance, affects millions of men worldwide. Though once considered an inevitable part of aging, ED is now regarded as a potentially reversible condition with multiple underlying causes, including vascular, neurogenic, hormonal, and psychogenic factors. … Read more