1. Introduction/Overview Digoxin, a cardiac glycoside derived from the leaves of the Digitalis lanata plant, represents one of the oldest and most extensively studied agents in cardiovascular therapeutics. Its clinical…

Introduction/Overview Diltiazem hydrochloride is a benzothiazepine derivative that functions as a calcium channel blocker, representing a cornerstone in the therapeutic management of cardiovascular disorders. Its introduction expanded the pharmacological arsenal…

Introduction/Overview Verapamil represents a cornerstone agent in cardiovascular therapeutics, belonging to the prototypical class of calcium channel blockers. Its introduction in the 1960s marked a significant advancement in the management…

Introduction/Overview Amlodipine is a prototypical and widely prescribed dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker, representing a cornerstone in the management of cardiovascular disorders. Its development marked a significant advancement in antihypertensive and…

1. Introduction/Overview Losartan potassium represents a cornerstone in the modern pharmacotherapy of cardiovascular and renal diseases. As the first orally active, non-peptide angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) introduced into clinical…

Introduction/Overview Enalapril represents a cornerstone therapeutic agent within the antihypertensive and cardioprotective pharmacopeia. As a prodrug of the active metabolite enalaprilat, it belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class.…

Introduction/Overview Captopril represents a landmark therapeutic agent in cardiovascular medicine as the first orally active inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) to be introduced into clinical practice. Its development in the…

1. Introduction/Overview Mannitol is a pharmacologically inert sugar alcohol that occupies a unique and critical position in therapeutic arsenals due to its potent osmotic properties. As a first-line agent for…

Introduction/Overview Spironolactone represents a cornerstone therapeutic agent within the class of potassium-sparing diuretics and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. Initially synthesized in the late 1950s, its clinical utility has expanded significantly from…

Introduction/Overview Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic that has been a cornerstone of antihypertensive therapy for over six decades. Its introduction in the late 1950s marked a significant advancement in the…