Introduction/Overview Levodopa, or L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), represents the cornerstone of pharmacological therapy for Parkinson's disease. Its introduction in the late 1960s revolutionized the management of this neurodegenerative disorder, providing profound symptomatic…

Introduction/Overview Ethosuximide represents a cornerstone in the pharmacological management of absence (petit mal) seizures, a specific type of generalized non-convulsive epilepsy. As a first-line therapeutic agent for this indication, its…

Introduction/Overview Sodium valproate, often referred to as valproate or valproic acid, represents a cornerstone agent in the therapeutic management of epilepsy and bipolar disorder. Initially synthesized in 1882 as an…

Introduction/Overview Carbamazepine is a tricyclic compound with a chemical structure related to the tricyclic antidepressants, yet its primary pharmacological actions are distinct, centering on the modulation of neuronal excitability. First…

Introduction/Overview Phenytoin, introduced into clinical practice in 1938, represents a cornerstone agent in the management of seizure disorders. As one of the oldest and most extensively studied antiepileptic drugs, its…

Introduction/Overview Phenobarbitone, also known as phenobarbital, represents one of the oldest and most enduring agents in the therapeutic armamentarium for seizure disorders. First introduced into clinical practice in 1912, its…

Introduction/Overview Diazepam, a 1,4-benzodiazepine derivative, represents a cornerstone agent in the class of psychoactive medications known as benzodiazepines. Since its introduction in the early 1960s, it has maintained significant clinical…

1. Introduction/Overview Erythropoietin (EPO) represents a critical glycoprotein hormone that serves as the principal regulator of red blood cell production, a process termed erythropoiesis. Endogenously synthesized primarily by peritubular interstitial…

Introduction/Overview Cyanocobalamin represents a synthetic, stable form of vitamin B12, a water-soluble micronutrient essential for human physiology. Its pharmacological significance extends beyond nutritional supplementation to the definitive treatment of specific…

Introduction/Overview Ferrous sulfate represents the prototypical and most widely utilized oral iron preparation for the treatment of iron deficiency. As an essential mineral, iron is a critical component of hemoglobin,…