1. Introduction/Overview The therapeutic use of naturally derived substances, encompassing vitamins and a broad category of compounds termed nutraceuticals, represents a significant and complex domain within clinical pharmacology. This field bridges nutritional science and pharmacotherapy, involving agents that may be consumed as dietary components but are often administered at doses exceeding nutritional requirements to elicit … Read more
1. Introduction: The Incretin Effect To understand GLP-1 agonists, one must first understand the “Incretin Effect.” This physiological phenomenon describes the observation that oral glucose administration elicits a much higher insulin response than an isoglycemic intravenous (IV) glucose infusion. In Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), the incretin effect is significantly blunted, predominantly due to a … Read more
1. Introduction to Lipoproteins and Lipid Metabolism Hyperlipidemia (or dyslipidemia) is defined as an elevation in plasma lipids, including cholesterol, cholesterol esters, triglycerides (TGs), and phospholipids. These lipids are insoluble in water and must be transported in the blood complexed with specialized proteins known as apoproteins (apolipoproteins). The lipid-protein complex is called a lipoprotein. Figure … Read more
Executive Summary The nomenclature of pharmaceutical agents is not merely a bureaucratic exercise in labeling; it is the foundational linguistic infrastructure of modern medicine. It serves as the critical interface between chemical innovation, regulatory oversight, clinical practice, and patient safety. From the precise molecular definitions required by synthetic chemists to the memorable brand names crafted … Read more
Scope: Pathophysiology, Drug Classifications, Mechanisms of Action, Clinical Pharmacology, and Therapeutic Guidelines. I. Introduction and Pathophysiology Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory disorder characterized by a breach in the mucosa of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the proximal duodenum (duodenal ulcer) extending through the muscularis mucosae. The pathophysiology of PUD is best … Read more
1. Introduction to Diabetes Mellitus and Glycemic Control 1.1. Overview of Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is not a single entity but a heterogeneous group of metabolic disorders characterised by chronic hyperglycemia. This elevated blood glucose results from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or, most commonly, both. The chronic nature of this hyperglycemia is … Read more
There are four classes of drug receptors, G protein-coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, enzyme-linked receptors (receptor tyrosine kinases and cytokine receptors), and intracellular nuclear receptors, each of which transmits its signals through different, but well-defined pathways, from ligand binding to cellular action. ⓘ Quick overview Most receptor pharmacology is organized into four classes: ligand-gated ion … Read more
Main Takeaway: A P-drug is a prescriber’s personal choice of first-line medicine for a specific indication, selected through a systematic and evidence-based process. Developing and maintaining a personal formulary of P-drugs streamlines decision-making, promotes rational therapeutics, and enhances patient safety. 1. Definition and Purpose of P-Drugs A P-drug (“personal drug”) is not merely the generic … Read more
Introduction The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions in the human body. It consists of two main divisions: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). These systems work in opposition to each other to maintain homeostasis. The effects of the ANS are mediated through … Read more
Introduction Skeletal muscle relaxants are a diverse group of medications that act on the central nervous system (CNS) or directly on skeletal muscles to reduce muscle tone and alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia (Katzung & Trevor, 2021). These drugs are commonly used in various clinical settings, including anaesthesia, neurology, and pain … Read more