Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since the introduction of omeprazole in the late 1980s, these drugs have…

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since the introduction of omeprazole in the late 1980s, these drugs have largely…

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since their introduction in the late 1980s, these drugs have revolutionized the treatment…

Introduction/Overview Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) represents a common clinical condition characterized by a breach in the mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum, extending through the muscularis mucosa. The pathophysiology…

Introduction/Overview Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) represents a common clinical condition characterized by a breach in the mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum, extending through the muscularis mucosae. The pathophysiology…

Introduction/Overview Cough is a complex, protective reflex mediated by the vagus nerve, serving to clear the airways of secretions, irritants, and foreign particles. While essential for pulmonary defense, cough can…

1. Introduction/Overview Cough is a complex, protective reflex action mediated by the cough center in the medulla oblongata and involving afferent and efferent neural pathways. While essential for airway clearance,…

1. Introduction/Overview Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represents a significant global health burden, characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to airway and/or alveolar abnormalities. The pharmacological management…

1. Introduction/Overview Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) represents a significant global health burden characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to airway and alveolar abnormalities, typically caused by…

Introduction/Overview Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and underlying inflammation. The pharmacological management of asthma aims to achieve and…