Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Nausea and vomiting are complex physiological responses coordinated by the central nervous system, often serving as protective reflexes to expel ingested toxins. In clinical practice, however, these symptoms represent…

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since the introduction of omeprazole in the late 1980s, these drugs have…

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since the introduction of omeprazole in the late 1980s, these drugs have largely…

Introduction/Overview Proton pump inhibitors represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in the management of acid-related disorders. Since their introduction in the late 1980s, these drugs have revolutionized the treatment…

Introduction/Overview Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) represents a common clinical condition characterized by a breach in the mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum, extending through the muscularis mucosa. The pathophysiology…

Introduction/Overview Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) represents a common clinical condition characterized by a breach in the mucosal lining of the stomach or duodenum, extending through the muscularis mucosae. The pathophysiology…

Introduction/Overview Cough is a complex, protective reflex mediated by the vagus nerve, serving to clear the airways of secretions, irritants, and foreign particles. While essential for pulmonary defense, cough can…

1. Introduction/Overview Cough is a complex, protective reflex action mediated by the cough center in the medulla oblongata and involving afferent and efferent neural pathways. While essential for airway clearance,…

1. Introduction/Overview Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represents a significant global health burden, characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to airway and/or alveolar abnormalities. The pharmacological management…

1. Introduction/Overview Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) represents a significant global health burden characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation due to airway and alveolar abnormalities, typically caused by…