Pharmacology

Introduction/Overview Azithromycin represents a cornerstone antimicrobial agent within the macrolide class, distinguished by its unique pharmacokinetic profile and broad spectrum of activity. As a semi-synthetic derivative of erythromycin, it was developed to overcome limitations associated with earlier macrolides, particularly gastrointestinal intolerance and a short elimination half-life. The clinical introduction of azithromycin significantly expanded therapeutic options … Read more

1. Introduction/Overview Tetracyclines represent a broad-spectrum class of antibiotics with a history spanning over seven decades of clinical use. Originally derived from Streptomyces bacteria, these agents have played a significant role in the management of diverse infectious diseases, from common bacterial infections to complex zoonotic and protozoan illnesses. Their clinical relevance persists despite the emergence … Read more

Introduction/Overview Gentamicin, a bactericidal aminoglycoside antibiotic, represents a cornerstone in the management of serious Gram-negative bacterial infections. First isolated from Micromonospora purpurea in 1963, its introduction marked a significant advancement in antimicrobial therapy, particularly for infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other resistant pathogens. Despite the development of newer antimicrobial classes, gentamicin maintains critical clinical … Read more

Introduction/Overview Vancomycin is a tricyclic glycopeptide antibiotic of considerable historical and contemporary clinical significance. Initially isolated from Streptomyces orientalis in the 1950s, it was long considered a drug of last resort due to its perceived toxicity and the efficacy of alternative agents like β-lactams. However, the global proliferation of multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens, particularly methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus … Read more

Introduction/Overview Ceftriaxone is a broad-spectrum, third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic of paramount clinical importance in modern antimicrobial therapy. Its development represented a significant advancement in the beta-lactam class, addressing the need for agents with enhanced stability against bacterial beta-lactamases, improved Gram-negative coverage, and a pharmacokinetic profile conducive to convenient dosing regimens. The drug’s extended half-life, which permits … Read more

Introduction/Overview Amoxicillin is a semisynthetic aminopenicillin antibiotic derived from the basic penicillin nucleus, 6-aminopenicillanic acid. It represents one of the most frequently prescribed antibacterial agents worldwide, serving as a cornerstone in the empirical and definitive treatment of a broad spectrum of community-acquired bacterial infections. Its development in the early 1970s marked a significant advancement over … Read more

Introduction/Overview Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2, widely utilized in clinical medicine for its dual therapeutic roles as an antacid and an osmotic laxative. Its historical use dates back centuries, with its modern pharmaceutical formulation often referred to as “milk of magnesia” due to its suspension’s milky white appearance. As … Read more

Introduction/Overview Loperamide hydrochloride is a synthetic piperidine derivative that functions as a peripherally-acting antidiarrheal agent of considerable clinical importance. Since its introduction in the 1970s, it has become one of the most widely utilized over-the-counter medications for the symptomatic management of acute and chronic diarrhea. Its clinical relevance stems from its efficacy, general safety profile … Read more

Introduction/Overview Metoclopramide is a prototypical prokinetic and antiemetic agent with a complex pharmacological profile that has secured its place in clinical practice for over five decades. As a derivative of procainamide, it uniquely combines gastrointestinal motility enhancement with potent central antiemetic activity. The clinical relevance of metoclopramide stems from its ability to address two common … Read more