1. Introduction: Beyond the “Male Hormone” Androgens are a class of steroid hormones often simplified as “male hormones,” but their physiological reach extends far beyond that label, playing crucial roles in the development and health of both sexes. These substances are responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and have profound effects on … Read more
1. Introduction: The Incretin Effect To understand GLP-1 agonists, one must first understand the “Incretin Effect.” This physiological phenomenon describes the observation that oral glucose administration elicits a much higher insulin response than an isoglycemic intravenous (IV) glucose infusion. In Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), the incretin effect is significantly blunted, predominantly due to a … Read more
1. Introduction to Diabetes Mellitus and Glycemic Control 1.1. Overview of Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is not a single entity but a heterogeneous group of metabolic disorders characterised by chronic hyperglycemia. This elevated blood glucose results from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or, most commonly, both. The chronic nature of this hyperglycemia is … Read more
Introduction Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a complex autoimmune disorder requiring comprehensive pharmacological management throughout the patient’s lifetime. Since the discovery of insulin over a century ago, numerous advancements have dramatically improved treatment options and quality of life for individuals with T1DM. This report provides a detailed overview of current and emerging pharmacotherapies for … Read more
INTRODUCTION Oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) rank among the most widely used forms of reversible birth control worldwide. First introduced in the 1960s, OCPs have profoundly impacted reproductive healthcare, offering numerous benefits, from reliable contraception to cycle regulation and management of various gynecological conditions. Modern-day formulations differ markedly from early high-dose estrogen products, reflecting decades of … Read more
Introduction Androgens—the primary being testosterone and its potent intracellular metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT)—drive the development and maintenance of male phenotype, regulate protein anabolism, affect behavior, and exert complex feed-back control over the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. Therapeutically, natural and synthetic androgens (collectively “anabolic-androgenic steroids,” AAS) are indispensable in endocrinology, hematology, geriatrics, gynecology, and even palliative care. 1. Chemical Classification Group … Read more
I. Introduction and Historical Context Anti-androgens are a pharmacologically diverse class of agents designed to diminish or block the effects of endogenous androgens—principally testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)—on target tissues. Since the recognition of androgen dependence in prostate cancer in the 1940s, the development of anti-androgen therapies has revolutionized management of hormone-dependent cancers, benign prostate disease, androgen … Read more
Oral contraceptives (OCs) are hormone-containing medications taken to prevent pregnancy and for management of various gynecologic conditions. They are among the most widely used medicines globally, and have undergone major changes in formulation, pharmacokinetics, and safety since their introduction. Types of Oral Contraceptives Type Active Ingredients Examples Clinical Features Combined Oral Contraceptives (COCs) Estrogen (usually … Read more
Introduction Brief Overview of Progesterone Progesterone is a crucial hormone in the human body, predominantly known for its role in the female reproductive system. It is a steroidal hormone primarily produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary following ovulation and in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. During pregnancy, it is also produced in … Read more
Introduction Overview of Estrogens: Definition and Biological Significance Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones crucial for the development and functioning of both female and male reproductive systems, although they are primarily considered female hormones. They play a significant role in sexual and reproductive development, particularly in women. Beyond their reproductive functions, estrogens are also … Read more