1. Introduction Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) represents a heterogeneous group of complex neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, alongside the presence of restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. The diagnostic conceptualization has evolved from earlier, narrowly defined categories to a single, dimensional spectrum disorder as outlined in … Read more
1. Introduction Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) represents a progressive, fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective degeneration of both upper motor neurons (UMNs) in the cerebral cortex and lower motor neurons (LMNs) in the brainstem and spinal cord. This dual involvement leads to a clinical syndrome of muscle weakness, atrophy, spasticity, and ultimately paralysis, with … Read more
1. Introduction Multiple sclerosis is a chronic, immune-mediated disorder of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation, demyelination, gliosis, and subsequent neurodegeneration. The condition represents a leading cause of non-traumatic neurological disability in young adults, with a complex pathophysiology involving an interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. The clinical hallmark is neurological dysfunction disseminated … Read more
1. Introduction Parkinson’s disease represents a progressive neurodegenerative disorder primarily characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra pars compacta. This neuronal degeneration leads to a profound depletion of striatal dopamine, resulting in the cardinal motor features of bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. As the second most common neurodegenerative disease … Read more
1. Introduction Epilepsy represents a chronic neurological disorder characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures, alongside the associated neurobiological, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences of this condition. A seizure is defined as a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. The distinction between … Read more
1. Introduction Blood disorders encompass a broad spectrum of conditions affecting the cellular components, plasma proteins, and coagulation pathways of the circulatory system. This chapter focuses on three paradigmatic disorders: hemophilia, a congenital coagulation factor deficiency; leukemia, a malignancy of hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow and blood; and lymphoma, a cancer originating in the … Read more
1. Introduction Anemia represents a prevalent clinical condition characterized by a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, typically quantified by a decrease in the concentration of hemoglobin, red blood cell count, or hematocrit below established reference ranges. This chapter focuses on two etiologically distinct yet clinically significant anemias: iron deficiency anemia, a disorder of … Read more
1. Introduction Pulmonary embolism (PE) represents a critical and potentially fatal manifestation of venous thromboembolism (VTE), characterized by the obstruction of one or more pulmonary arteries by embolic material, most commonly a thrombus originating from the deep veins of the lower extremities. As a leading cause of cardiovascular mortality and a major contributor to hospital-acquired … Read more
1. Introduction Deep vein thrombosis represents a critical pathological condition characterized by the formation of a blood clot, or thrombus, within a deep vein, typically in the lower extremities. This process is a primary component of venous thromboembolism, a spectrum of disease that also includes its most feared complication, pulmonary embolism. The formation of an … Read more
1. Introduction Venous disorders represent a spectrum of conditions characterized by impaired return of blood from the periphery to the heart, primarily affecting the lower extremities. These conditions range from cosmetic telangiectasias to debilitating venous ulcers, constituting a significant burden on healthcare systems globally. The underlying pathophysiology involves venous hypertension resulting from valvular incompetence, venous … Read more