Cardiovascular

Introduction/Overview Anticoagulant drugs represent a cornerstone of modern pharmacotherapy for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic disorders. These agents function by inhibiting specific components of the coagulation cascade, thereby attenuating…

Introduction/Overview Anticoagulant drugs represent a cornerstone of modern pharmacotherapy for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic disorders. These agents function by inhibiting specific components of the coagulation cascade, thereby reducing…

Introduction/Overview The pharmacological modulation of cardiac contractility represents a cornerstone in the management of heart failure and certain arrhythmias. Agents that enhance the force of myocardial contraction, known as positive…

Introduction/Overview The pharmacological modulation of cardiac contractility represents a cornerstone in the management of heart failure and certain arrhythmias. Agents that increase the force of myocardial contraction, known as positive…

1. Introduction/Overview Hypertension represents a major modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal diseases, contributing significantly to global morbidity and mortality. The pharmacological management of elevated blood pressure is…

1. Introduction/Overview Hypertension represents a major global public health challenge, constituting a primary modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular disease, stroke, renal failure, and mortality. The pharmacological management of elevated blood…

Introduction/Overview Beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists, commonly termed beta blockers, constitute a cornerstone of pharmacotherapy for a spectrum of cardiovascular disorders. These agents competitively inhibit the binding of endogenous catecholamines—epinephrine and norepinephrine—to…

Introduction/Overview Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors represent a cornerstone class of therapeutic agents in cardiovascular and renal medicine. Their development followed the elucidation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), a critical hormonal…

Introduction/Overview Diuretics represent a cornerstone class of pharmacological agents that promote the excretion of water and electrolytes via the kidneys. Their primary action involves inhibiting tubular reabsorption of sodium and…