Pharmacology of Barbiturates
Introduction Barbiturates are among the earliest classes of sedative-hypnotic drugs discovered and used clinically. Derived from barbituric acid, these compounds exert a depressant influence on the central nervous system (CNS), leading to sedation, hypnosis, or…
Pharmacology of Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Introduction Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) revolutionized the treatment of depression and related affective disorders in the late 20th century. Since their introduction, SSRIs have become the first-line pharmacological treatment for mild, moderate, and…
Pharmacology of Paracetamol/Acetaminophen
Introduction Paracetamol—known as acetaminophen in some regions—is one of the most widely used analgesics and antipyretics. Celebrated for its efficacy and relatively favorable safety profile compared to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and…
Aspirin: A Comprehensive Pharmacological Overview
Aspirin, scientifically known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a cornerstone in the world of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). With its multifaceted roles as an analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory agent, aspirin has secured…
Understanding Cyclooxygenase (COX) Enzymes
Cyclooxygenase (COX), which is also called prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase (PTGS), is an enzyme that converts arachidonic acid into prostanoids like thromboxane and prostaglandins like prostacyclin. This enzyme is a member of…
Pharmacology of Benzodiazepines
Introduction Benzodiazepines are a cornerstone of modern pharmacotherapy for anxiety, insomnia, seizure disorders, muscle spasms, and other related conditions. By enhancing the effects of the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS),…
Pharmacology of Antitussives
Introduction A cough is one of the most common clinical symptoms that prompts patients to seek medical care. Although it serves a critical protective role in clearing secretions, irritants, and pathogens from…
Pharmacology of antiemetic drugs
Introduction Nausea and vomiting are protective reflexes designed to prevent the ingestion or continued digestion of harmful toxins. However, when severe, they can significantly deteriorate patient comfort, compromise treatment adherence,…
Pharmacology of Mucosal Protective Agents
Introduction Peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and other erosive conditions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract rank among the most common and debilitating ailments worldwide. In managing these…
Pharmacology of Antacids
Introduction Antacids represent one of the oldest and most commonly used groups of medications for gastrointestinal acidity-related disorders. By chemically neutralizing excessive gastric acid, antacids rapidly relieve symptoms such as heartburn, epigastric…
